By Jamie York
The indoor toilet -- also known as a water closet -- has been around in one form or another since the 18th century. The original design consisted of a cast-iron bowl and a valve that emptied directly into a drain; it was a one-way system, as water had to be poured into the bowl. Today, after improvements such as the vented trap drain, ceramic bowls, soft seats and water restrictors to reduce the amount of water needed per flush, the toilet has become a standard convenience that we rarely think about unless we are called upon to clean it.
But maybe we should think about it. What happens after we flush?
First, the waste is carried into a sewer. That, in itself, is no problem, but the sewer systems were built as common systems, which means that any household chemical we put into our drains and any pesticides we spray on our lawns also wind up in the same sewer. And what about the guy down the street who dumps his motor oil into the gutter? What about the company across town that dumps used solvents into a floor drain?
Through the sewer system, the waste is then carried to a waste water treatment plant, where dilution and filtering processes separate the liquid from the solids so the water can be purified and reused. Meanwhile, the solids are processed as "sludge."
Over 60,000 toxic substances and chemical compounds, including PCBs, chlorinated pesticides, dioxins, heavy metals, petroleum products, solvents, bacteria and radioactive material can be found in sewage sludge and, once it has been created by the waste water treatment plant, this toxic slime must be disposed of somewhere. The available disposal methods include incineration, dumping into landfills, ocean dumping, gasification (using the sludge to generate methanol for energy), and using the sludge as plant fertilizer on farm fields.
The last method -- using the sludge on farm fields -- used to be considered dangerous to human health and to the environment by the Environmental Protection Agency, but about 36 percent of the 11.6 billion pounds of municipal sludge produced annually in the United States is now used on farm fields in spite of continued health concerns. According to John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton:
"In 1993, a team of researchers at the University of Arizona published an article titled "Hazards from Pathogenic Microorganisms in Land-Disposed Sewage Sludge." Their study found that "significant numbers" of dangerous human disease organisms infect even treated sewage sludge. "Thus, no assessment of the risks associated with the land application of sewage sludge can ever be considered to be complete when dealing with microorganisms. The viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi and intestinal worms present in sewage and sludge is mindboggling. Many of the pathogens cause diseases that sicken, cripple and kill humans, including salmonella, shigella, campylobacter, e-coli, enteroviruses (which cause paralysis, meningitis, fever, respiratory illness, diarrhea, encephalitis) giardia, cryptosporidium, roundworm, hookworm, and tapeworm. Sludge pathogens can move through many environmental pathways -- direct contact with sludge, evaporation and inhalation, contaminated ground water, contamination of rodents burrowing in sludge, and uptake through the roots of crops."
Beside the problem of sludge disposal, there is also the problem of our fresh water supply. Each time we flush away our body wastes, we also flush away about two to six gallons of drinking water, depending upon the type of toilet we are using. Of course, this water will eventually be treated at a waste water treatment plant, but even after the water has been treated, it may still contain nitrates, chlorine, and other pollutants.
This may be acceptable to Americans today, I don't know. Perhaps we are so used to the convenience of our flush toilets, sewers, and waste water treatment plants that we just take the process for granted and assume that it can continue indefinitely. But what will happen in the future as the world's population increases and the fresh water supplies dwindle? Shouldn't we, as individuals if not as a society, be implementing water conservation methods now?
There are several things that we can do as individuals to conserve water and reduce the problem of toxic sludge:
First, we can be mindful of our water use and careful about what goes into our drains. We can stop using chemical cleansers and start buying environmentally safe cleansers. We can also install water-restricting toilets, faucets and shower heads and make sure the water is turned off if we are not actually using it.
Second, we can start using compost and other organic products on our lawns and gardens instead of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Third, we can support organic farming by buying organic produce. As of this writing, however, the U.S. Department of Agriculture is proposing national standards for foods labeled "organic" and is still considering the use of genetic engineering, irradiation, antibiotic use in livestock, and the use of municipal sludge as fertilizer.
Fourth, we can install composting toilet systems and greywater systems into new houses. The new vented composting toilets are safe, odorless, use little or no water, require little extra work, and the finished compost can be used safely in flower beds and pots. We now have the technology to build convenient, modern houses that need not be connected to a sewer or septic system at all. An effective greywater system requires that all residents be responsible about what goes into the drains, so this makes it less practical for multi-family use, but I believe that composting toilet systems should be installed in all new houses and apartments. Other applications for composting toilets include installing them in cabins, campers, motor homes, boats, or wherever an extra toilet is needed. We have the technology; why not use it?
Fifth, those who don't mind a little extra work can install indoor sawdust toilets -- the bucket system -- and practice thermophilic (heat) composting of their waste so that all human pathogens are destroyed and the resulting compost may be used safely in vegetable gardens. This method makes the sense for those who live in rural areas, but I don't think it would work for city dwellers. And I can't, under any circumstances, imagine Senator Jesse Helms carrying a bucket of shit outside to the compost pile.
As a society, we could also think about re-designing our sewer systems to separate human waste from other sewer waste and then compost the human waste using the thermophilic method. The pathogen-free compost could then be used safely on farm land. Of course, the cost of such an undertaking would be so immense that it doesn't seem practical on a large scale. Perhaps, as new housing developments are planned, the developers could plan a local composting system. Fat chance.
I guess the bottom line is this: How much do we care about the future while we are living in the present? More than a billion people in the developing countries do not have clean water now, so how much convenience are we willing to sacrifice so that future generations of Americans will have clean drinking water? Maybe we are too spoiled to change our ways. Or too arrogant. Or maybe, until now, no one ever told us about the problem. In any case, we are running out of time. As the world's population increases rapidly -- an estimated one billion people in the next 13 years -- the problem will only get worse. Now is the time to act.
Acknowledgments
Jenkins, Joseph C., The Humanure Handbook, (Grove City, PA: Jenkins Publishing, 1994), p. 18.
Stauber, John, and Sheldon Rampton, Toxic Sludge is Good For You, (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), pp. 104-105.